Labor Shortages, Union Dynamics, and Productivity in Indiana’s Construction Industry: An Analytical Review

1. Introduction

1.1 Context

The construction industry serves as a fundamental pillar of economic development, responsible for creating and maintaining the physical infrastructure—buildings, roads, bridges, utilities—that underpins societal activity and commerce. Its performance directly impacts Gross Domestic Product (GDP), employment levels, and the overall quality of life within a region. In Indiana, a state with a significant manufacturing base and logistical importance, the construction sector plays a particularly vital role in supporting industrial expansion, infrastructure modernization, and residential development. However, like many regions across the United States, Indiana’s construction industry faces contemporary challenges, most notably persistent labor shortages that threaten project timelines, inflate costs, and potentially constrain economic growth.¹

1.2 Research Problem

This report addresses the complex and interconnected relationships between three critical factors within Indiana’s construction industry: labor supply constraints, specifically documented labor shortages; the institutional framework of labor relations, characterized by the presence and activities of labor unions; and economic performance, primarily measured through productivity. Understanding how these elements interact—how shortages affect union and non-union segments differently, how unionization influences productivity and workforce development in the face of shortages, and how state-level factors shape these dynamics—is crucial for navigating the industry’s future.

1.3 Significance

The analysis presented herein holds significant implications for Indiana’s economic health, infrastructure development strategy, workforce planning efforts, and labor policy formulation. A clear understanding of the interplay between labor availability, union dynamics, and productivity can inform evidence-based strategies aimed at enhancing industry efficiency, ensuring timely project completion, developing a sustainable skilled workforce pipeline, and fostering equitable labor practices. Stakeholders, including policymakers, contractor associations, labor unions, educational institutions, and individual firms, require robust analysis to address the challenges and capitalize on the opportunities within this vital sector.

1.4 Research Questions

This research report aims to address the following specific questions pertaining to Indiana’s construction industry:

1. What is the scope and economic significance of the construction industry within Indiana, including its contribution to state GDP and employment?
2. What is the evidence and what are the characteristics of labor shortages in Indiana’s construction sector? Which specific trades are affected, can the shortage be quantified, and what are the reported causes (e.g., demographics, training gaps, wage issues)?
3. What is the role and influence of labor unions within Indiana’s construction industry? What are the union density rates, major unions operating in the state, and key features of collective bargaining agreements relevant to labor supply and work practices?
4. What methods are used for measuring productivity in the construction industry, and what available data or studies exist on productivity trends specifically within Indiana?
5. What is the relationship between union presence/activity and construction productivity in Indiana? Are there comparative studies or data on union versus non-union project outcomes regarding efficiency, costs, safety, and quality?
6. How are documented labor shortages impacting both union and non-union segments of the Indiana construction market, considering effects on wages, project timelines, and recruitment strategies?
7. What state-specific regulations, economic factors, or workforce development initiatives in Indiana influence labor supply, union power, and overall construction productivity?
8. How do labor shortages, union dynamics, and productivity interplay, and what are the implications for the future of Indiana’s construction industry?

1.5 Scope and Methodology

The scope of this report is confined to the construction industry within the state of Indiana. The analysis primarily draws upon data and information available from the late 2010s through early 2025, as reflected in the provided source materials. The methodology employed is a synthesis and analysis of secondary data derived from a range of sources, including: government statistical agencies such as the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) and the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS); reports from construction industry associations like the Associated General Contractors of America (AGC) and Associated Builders and Contractors (ABC); academic research, including working papers from the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) and studies from policy institutes like the Midwest Economic Policy Institute (MEPI); relevant legal documents pertaining to collective bargaining; and news articles reporting on industry trends and initiatives. Data limitations, particularly regarding state-specific construction productivity trends and precise union density within the sector, are acknowledged where relevant.

1.6 Report Structure

Following this introduction, Section 2 details the economic footprint of Indiana’s construction industry. Section 3 investigates the evidence, characteristics, causes, and impacts of labor shortages within the sector. Section 4 analyzes the role and influence of labor unions, including density, major players, and collective bargaining features. Section 5 examines construction productivity measurement methods and available Indiana-specific data. Section 6 explores the relationship between unionization and productivity outcomes in the state. Section 7 investigates the differential impacts of labor shortages on union and non-union segments. Section 8 identifies key state-level regulations, economic factors, and workforce initiatives influencing the industry. Finally, Section 9 synthesizes the findings, analyzes the interplay between the core themes, and discusses the implications for the future of Indiana’s construction industry.

2. The Economic Footprint of Indiana’s Construction Industry

The construction sector represents a significant component of Indiana’s economy, contributing substantially to the state’s overall output and providing considerable employment opportunities.

2.1 GDP Contribution

Quantifying the precise contribution of the construction industry to Indiana’s Gross State Product (GSP) requires careful attention to the specific metrics and timeframes used. Recent data indicate a substantial economic impact. In the second quarter of 2024, the construction sector contributed $27 billion to Indiana’s GSP, which totaled $524 billion during that period. This represented 5.1% of the state’s total economic output.⁴ Data from the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis (FRED) using BEA figures shows the seasonally adjusted annual rate of construction GDP in Indiana reached $27.5 billion in the fourth quarter of 2024.⁵ Earlier data from the BEA indicated a contribution of $18.0 billion in current dollars for the year 2019.⁶

These varying figures highlight the importance of context; the $27 billion figure represents the sector’s contribution within a specific quarter, while the $27.5 billion figure represents an annualized rate based on Q4 2024 activity, and the $18.0 billion figure reflects the nominal value for an earlier year. Regardless of the specific measure, construction consistently ranks as a key industry. For context, Indiana’s total real GDP (adjusted for inflation) was approximately $404.3 billion in 2023.⁷ While manufacturing remains the largest contributor ($110.7 billion in 2023), followed by sectors like real estate, rental, and leasing ($42.3 billion), construction’s multi-billion dollar contribution underscores its economic weight.⁷ Notably, the 5.1% share of state GDP reported for Q2 2024 ⁴ is slightly higher than the national average, where construction contributed 4.4% to U.S. GDP in 2023, suggesting a somewhat greater relative importance within Indiana’s economy compared to the nation as a whole.⁸

2.2 Employment

The construction industry is a major employer in Indiana. In August 2024, seasonally adjusted construction employment reached 172,900 workers, encompassing both residential and nonresidential segments.⁴ This figure represented a significant increase of 11,800 jobs (7%) compared to August 2023 and a substantial 22,800 jobs (15%) above the pre-pandemic peak employment level of February 2020.⁴ More recent preliminary data from the BLS for March 2025 showed seasonally adjusted employment at 167,900.⁹ While this indicates a slight year-over-year decrease (-0.4%), it remains significantly elevated compared to historical levels. Analysis confirms this longer-term growth trend, noting that construction employment in December 2023 was 15% higher than in January 2019.¹²

This robust employment growth positions construction as a key source of jobs within the state, although it constitutes a fraction of Indiana’s total nonfarm employment, which stood at approximately 3.27 million in March 2025.⁹ The strong post-pandemic recovery in employment numbers is notable. However, as will be discussed in Section 3, this growth has occurred alongside persistent reports of labor shortages, suggesting that demand for construction labor may be outpacing even this increased supply, or that the nature of the available workforce does not fully align with industry needs.¹

2.3 Industry Structure

Indiana’s construction landscape is composed of numerous firms, primarily small businesses. In the first quarter of 2024, there were 17,200 construction establishments (fixed business locations) in Indiana, out of 943,000 nationwide.⁴ A defining characteristic nationally is that approximately 99% of construction firms operate from a single establishment ⁴, a pattern likely mirrored in Indiana. BLS data indicated 954,438 private construction establishments nationally in the third quarter of 2024.¹³ In terms of spending within the state, private nonresidential construction spending totaled $11 billion in 2023, while state and local government spending on construction reached $9 billion.⁴

2.4 Wages

Compensation in Indiana’s construction industry generally compares favorably to other sectors. In 2023, the median annual pay for five of the most numerous construction occupations in the state (First-Line Supervisors, Electricians, Plumbers/Pipefitters, Carpenters, Laborers) exceeded the median pay for all occupations statewide.⁴ Specific median figures reported for 2023 were: Electricians ($78,710), Plumbers/Pipefitters ($68,070), First-Line Supervisors ($64,900), Carpenters ($55,080), and Laborers ($48,590), all above the overall state median of $45,470.⁴

Broader wage data provides additional context. In the Indianapolis-Carmel-Anderson metropolitan area, the average (mean) hourly wage for Construction and Extraction occupations was $30.16 in May 2023.¹⁴ This was slightly higher than the overall average hourly wage for all occupations in the metro area ($29.11), though the metro average lagged behind the national average ($31.48).¹⁴ National data for May 2023 placed the median hourly wage for Construction Laborers at $21.78 ($45,300 annually) ¹⁵, and the median annual wage for all Construction and Extraction occupations combined was $55,680.¹⁶ These figures indicate that construction offers competitive wages within Indiana, particularly for skilled trades, although regional averages may trail national benchmarks.

Table 2.1 provides a summary of these key economic indicators.

Table 2.1: Key Economic Indicators of Indiana’s Construction Industry (Most Recent Available Data)

(p) = preliminary

3. Labor Shortages in Indiana’s Construction Sector

Despite robust employment growth detailed in the previous section, Indiana’s construction industry is grappling with significant labor shortages, mirroring a national trend that poses substantial challenges to project execution and industry expansion.

3.1 Evidence and Scale

The existence of a construction labor shortage is well-documented nationally and within Indiana. National industry associations have consistently flagged the issue. Associated Builders and Contractors (ABC) projected nationwide workforce shortages needing hundreds of thousands of additional workers annually beyond normal hiring paces: 650,000 in 2022, 501,000 in 2024, and 439,000 in 2025.¹ A 2024 survey by the Associated General Contractors of America (AGC) found that 94% of construction firms nationwide reported open positions, and 94% of those firms were experiencing difficulty filling them, particularly craft positions.² National job openings data reinforces this, with a historically elevated average of 377,000 openings per month through late 2023 and a record high of 449,000 unfilled construction jobs reported in December 2023.¹² While the job openings rate decreased slightly from 5.5 in 2022 to 4.6 in April 2023, it remained well above the pre-pandemic rate of around 3.0.¹⁹

Within Indiana, the scale of the shortage is also estimated to be substantial. The Indiana Construction Roundtable Foundation (ICRF) has projected a need for an additional 110,000 construction workers by the year 2026, aiming for a total workforce of 275,000 to meet anticipated demand.³ This represents a significant expansion from the current workforce size (around 165,000-170,000). (Note: A separate reference citing ICRF mentioned a need for 1,100 new workers by 2026 ¹²; given the context and other ICRF figures, the 110,000 estimate appears more representative of the overall projected need, and the 1,100 figure may refer to a specific subset or be a reporting error). The Indiana Builders Association (IBA) noted over 3,000 average annual job openings and projected over 30,300 construction trade jobs needing to be filled by 2024.²¹ Furthermore, a report from Ivy Tech Community College highlighted a broader state need to upskill 82,000 workers annually through 2035 across key sectors, potentially including construction-related fields, to meet job demands requiring postsecondary training.²²

3.2 Affected Trades

The shortages span across various skilled trades essential to construction. National reports emphasize the desperate need for qualified, skilled craft professionals.¹ Specific trades frequently mentioned as facing shortages nationally include electricians, carpenters, plumbers, HVAC technicians, welders, pipefitters, and ironworkers.¹ National data from 2011-2022 showed a concerning decline in the number of carpenters (-7.5%) and slow growth for construction managers (+2.1%), while the number of entry-level laborers grew much faster (+72.8%), suggesting a particular deficit in higher-skilled positions.¹

While detailed data pinpointing the most affected trades specifically within Indiana is limited in the available sources, the widespread focus on apprenticeship and training programs across multiple trades implies broad-based shortages. State initiatives like Next Level Jobs and industry programs explicitly list training opportunities in carpentry, electrical work, HVAC, and welding, suggesting demand in these areas.²⁵ ICRF has noted that unfilled job numbers are highest in the residential sector but remain significant in highway and commercial construction as well.²⁰ Additionally, the commentary from the Indiana Plumbing Heating Coolers Contractors Association regarding the potential shortage of plumbing companies due to succession issues points to challenges in that specific trade.²³

3.3 Reported Causes

The labor shortage stems from a confluence of factors:

• Demographics and Aging Workforce: A primary driver is the aging of the existing workforce and impending retirements. Nationally, the average retirement age in construction is 61, with over 20% of the workforce older than 55.¹ The average age of an Indiana construction worker is around 50.¹² This demographic shift is compounded by plateauing population growth in Indiana, with projections indicating a 7% decrease in the available workforce pool (comparing the high school class of 2019 to the kindergarten class entering for 2037).³ The share of prime-age workers (25-54) in construction declined nationally in the decade leading up to 2022.¹
• Training Gaps and Pipeline Issues: The system for training new workers is struggling to keep pace. Nationally, Government Registered Apprenticeship Programs (GRAPs) are not producing enough completers to meet demand, despite growth in participation, particularly in non-union programs.¹⁸ There is a documented need for widespread upskilling and reskilling.²² Contributing factors include a lack of awareness and often negative perceptions of trade careers among young people and their parents ²⁴, a societal emphasis on four-year college degrees over vocational paths, and a decline in school-based shop classes.²⁸ Some analyses also link the repeal of Indiana’s Common Construction Wage (prevailing wage) law to an influx of lower-skilled workers, potentially exacerbating the skilled labor gap.³⁰ The nation’s overall failure to invest sufficiently in construction workforce education is cited as a critical issue.²
• Wage and Compensation Issues: While wages in construction are often competitive (Section 2.4), they may not be sufficient to attract and retain enough workers, especially in the face of inflation. Wage stagnation was cited nationally as a key reason for voluntary employee separations.¹⁹ Although many contractors report increasing base pay ¹⁹, these raises may not outpace inflation.¹⁹ The repeal of Indiana’s CCW resulted in documented wage reductions (8-8.5% on average for blue-collar workers) for those on public projects, potentially making the state less attractive to skilled labor compared to neighboring states with prevailing wage laws.³⁰ The tight labor market is increasing competition and driving up wages for specific in-demand skills, but this may not benefit all segments equally.³⁴
• Economic Factors: The 2008 recession led to a significant loss of construction workers nationally, many of whom did not return.²³ Post-pandemic economic shifts, including a greater desire for remote work options (unavailable for most construction roles), also play a role.³⁵ High inflation impacts project costs and can erode the real value of wages.³⁴
• Working Conditions and Perceptions: Negative stereotypes of construction as “dirty” or unsafe jobs persist.²⁸ The physically demanding nature of the work and requirements for travel can also be deterrents.²⁰

3.4 Impacts

The consequences of these labor shortages are tangible and affect various aspects of the construction process:

• Project Delays: Shortages are a direct cause of project delays, reported by 54% of contractors nationally in a 2024 survey.² Delays are frequently cited as a major consequence.¹⁹ This can impact critical infrastructure work; INDOT, for instance, had to postpone 300 projects, potentially due in part to workforce constraints alongside funding issues.³⁸
• Increased Costs: Competition for scarce labor drives up wages and overall labor costs.¹⁹ Project delays also inevitably lead to increased costs.³⁵
• Workload, Safety, and Quality: Existing workers face increased workloads, leading to potential fatigue, burnout, and reduced productivity.¹⁹ Rushing projects or using less-skilled labor due to shortages can compromise workmanship quality and potentially increase safety risks.¹⁹ This also increases overall risk for builders.¹⁹
• Recruitment Challenges and Strategy Shifts: Firms are intensifying recruitment efforts, utilizing online strategies, partnering with schools and career programs, and increasing investments in internal training and development.² There is a growing emphasis on attracting younger workers and diversifying the workforce by recruiting more women and minorities.¹²

The multifaceted nature of the shortage’s causes necessitates comprehensive solutions. Addressing only one factor, such as wages, is unlikely to resolve the underlying structural issues related to demographics, training infrastructure, and industry perception. Furthermore, policy decisions, such as the repeal of the Common Construction Wage, appear to have influenced the composition of the workforce, potentially worsening the shortage of skilled labor even if overall employment numbers have risen.³⁰ This highlights the complex interplay between policy, labor market dynamics, and skill requirements.

Table 3.1 summarizes the key causes and impacts discussed.

Table 3.1: Reported Causes and Impacts of Indiana Construction Labor Shortages

4. The Role and Influence of Labor Unions in Indiana Construction

Labor unions remain significant institutional actors within Indiana’s construction industry, influencing labor supply, working conditions, and training, despite operating within a Right-to-Work state environment and facing broader trends of declining union density.

4.1 Union Density and Representation

Statewide union membership across all industries in Indiana stood at 9.0% in 2024, with 10.4% of workers represented by a union (including non-members covered by union contracts).⁴⁰ This represented an increase from 8.0% membership and 9.1% representation in 2023.⁴⁰ In absolute numbers, Indiana had 271,000 union members in 2024.⁴⁰ However, these figures are considerably lower than historical levels; for instance, union membership density was 21.0% in 1989.⁴² A notable decline occurred following the passage of Indiana’s Right-to-Work (RTW) law in 2012, when membership density dropped from 11.3% in 2011 to 9.1% in 2012.⁴²

Nationally, the construction industry exhibits higher unionization rates than the private sector average. In 2024, 10.3% of construction workers were union members, and 15.4% were represented by unions.⁴³ This compares to a private-sector membership rate of just 5.9%.⁴⁴ Construction and Extraction occupations nationally rank among those with the highest unionization rates (15.4%).⁴⁴ For comparison, neighboring Illinois reported a 46% unionization rate for construction and extraction occupations.⁴⁶

Specific data quantifying union density within Indiana’s construction sector is not available in the reviewed materials.⁴⁰ This represents a significant data gap for precise analysis. However, substantial qualitative evidence points to a continued strong union presence and influence within the sector, likely exceeding the state’s overall average density. This evidence includes the existence of numerous active local unions across various trades, robust Building Trades Councils at the state and regional levels, well-established Joint Apprenticeship and Training Committees (JATCs), and large representative organizations like the Indiana State Building & Construction Trades Council (ISBCTC) and Top Notch, each claiming to represent around 75,000 union tradespeople.⁴⁷ Furthermore, the finding that union-affiliated programs account for 94% of the annual investment in construction apprenticeship training in Indiana underscores their deep institutional role in workforce development.⁵¹ This suggests that despite the overall decline in union density statewide and the RTW environment, unions remain highly influential within the construction sector itself.

4.2 Major Unions and Organizations

The unionized construction landscape in Indiana is structured around several key entities:

• Building Trades Councils: These umbrella organizations coordinate activities among various trade unions. Key examples include the Indiana State Building & Construction Trades Council (ISBCTC) ⁴⁷, the North East Indiana Building Trades (NEIBT) ⁵⁰, the Central Indiana Building Trades Council ⁵², and the Northwestern Indiana Building Trades ⁵², among others representing different regions.
• Trade Unions (Locals and District Councils): Numerous local unions affiliated with international parent bodies represent specific crafts. Prominent examples identified include locals and district councils for: Operating Engineers (IUOE) ⁴⁸, Laborers (LiUNA) ⁵⁰, Electrical Workers (IBEW) ⁴⁹, Carpenters, Plumbers/Pipefitters/Steamfitters (UA) ⁴⁹, Ironworkers ⁴⁹, Painters (IUPAT) ⁴⁹, Sheet Metal Workers (SMART) ⁴⁹, Insulators ⁴⁹, Bricklayers (BAC) ⁴⁹, Roofers ⁴⁹, Plasterers and Cement Masons (OPCMIA) ⁴⁹, Boilermakers ⁵⁰, Elevator Constructors (IUEC) ⁵⁰, Glaziers ⁵⁰, Sprinkler Fitters ⁴⁹, and Teamsters.⁵² A detailed list of affiliated locals can often be found on council websites.⁵²
• Labor-Management Organizations: Groups like Top Notch facilitate cooperation between union labor and signatory contractors on issues like safety, diversity, and industry promotion.⁴⁹ The Indiana Plan focuses specifically on recruiting women and minorities into union apprenticeship programs.⁵⁵

4.3 Collective Bargaining Agreements (CBAs)

CBAs negotiated between unions and signatory employers (or employer associations) establish the terms and conditions of employment and significantly shape labor supply and work practices. Key features relevant to this analysis include:

• Dispute Resolution: CBAs typically mandate arbitration for disputes concerning contract interpretation or application, although jurisdictional disputes (conflicts between unions over work assignments) are often explicitly excluded and handled through separate mechanisms.⁵⁶
• Subcontracting Clauses: These clauses are critical tools for unions, particularly in mixed labor markets. They often require employers to subcontract work only to firms that adhere to the wage rates, fringe benefits, and apprenticeship standards outlined in the primary CBA.⁵⁶ The enforceability and interpretation of these clauses can be complex and subject to legal challenges, as they aim to extend union standards to non-signatory entities working on the same project site.⁵⁶ This mechanism allows unions to influence labor standards beyond their direct membership.
• Apprenticeship and Training: CBAs frequently mandate adherence to, and funding for, registered apprenticeship programs, typically administered jointly by labor and management through JATCs.⁵¹ As noted, union-affiliated programs dominate apprenticeship investment in Indiana ⁵¹, making CBAs a primary driver of formal skills training. Apprenticeship agreements are formal contracts involving the apprentice, the sponsor (often a JATC), and the U.S. Department of Labor.⁵⁵
• Wages and Benefits: CBAs establish specific wage scales and comprehensive benefits packages, which often include health insurance and retirement plans (such as defined benefit pensions or defined contribution plans like those associated with IBEW Local 481 ⁵³).⁵⁵ This typically results in higher and more standardized compensation compared to the non-union sector.⁴⁵
• Hiring and Dispatch: While not explicitly detailed, union CBAs often incorporate provisions for hiring through union-operated hiring halls, which dispatch registered members to signatory contractors based on established rules and qualifications.
• Work Rules and Jurisdiction: Agreements define the scope of work covered (craft jurisdiction), which is essential for determining staffing but can occasionally lead to inter-union disputes.⁵⁶

The dominance of union investment in Indiana’s formal apprenticeship system ⁵¹ is particularly noteworthy. While national data indicates faster growth in the number of participants in non-union registered programs ¹⁸, the financial commitment in Indiana appears overwhelmingly concentrated in the union sector’s JATCs. This suggests that the unionized segment plays a disproportionately large role in developing the state’s future skilled construction workforce, a critical function given the documented labor shortages.

Table 4.1: Major Construction Union Organizations Active in Indiana

5. Measuring and Understanding Construction Productivity

Productivity is a critical determinant of economic performance in the construction industry, influencing project costs, timelines, and overall competitiveness. However, accurately measuring productivity in this sector presents unique challenges.

5.1 Challenges in Measurement

A fundamental challenge lies in the lack of a universally accepted definition and standardized methodology for measuring construction productivity.⁶³ The heterogeneity of construction projects—varying in size, complexity, location, and type—makes direct comparisons difficult. Furthermore, industry-level productivity statistics, often derived from national economic accounts, frequently show stagnant or declining trends over long periods.⁶⁴ These macro-level findings can seem counterintuitive to industry practitioners observing technological advancements and process improvements, raising questions about the accuracy and applicability of these broad measures to specific project contexts.⁶⁴ Operationalizing productivity in a consistent, repeatable manner within the construction sector has proven exceptionally difficult.⁶⁵

5.2 Common Measurement Methods

Despite the challenges, several methods are employed to assess construction productivity at different levels:

• Labor Productivity (Unit Rate): This is perhaps the most common approach, focusing on the efficiency of labor input. It is typically defined as the work-hours required per unit of physical output (e.g., cubic yards of concrete poured, linear feet of pipe installed, square feet of building area completed).⁶³ This input-divided-by-output measure, often called the unit rate, has been adopted by organizations like the Construction Industry Institute (CII) and can be applied at the task level for detailed project control.⁶³ Studies comparing union and non-union performance often utilize physical output per labor hour (e.g., square footage per hour) as the key metric.⁶⁶ A variation uses monetary value added per labor hour.⁶⁸
• Total Factor Productivity (TFP): TFP aims for a more comprehensive measure by comparing total output value to a composite measure of multiple inputs, including labor, capital (equipment, structures), materials, and energy.⁶⁵ Economists often favor TFP because it can capture efficiency gains stemming from technological progress, improved management practices, economies of scale, and other factors beyond just labor input.⁶⁵ National statistical agencies like the BLS track TFP for major economic sectors.¹³
• Index-Based Approaches: Recognizing the limitations of direct output measures, index-based methods assess factors known to influence productivity. CII developed the Best Productivity Practices Implementation Index (BPPII) to gauge how effectively projects implement established productivity-enhancing methods, tools, and strategies, finding that higher BPPII scores correlate with better reported jobsite productivity.⁶⁴ For engineering productivity, CII developed a system using “basis hours” calculated from quantities of physical design components as a standardized output measure.⁷⁰
• Project-Level Metrics: Standard project management metrics, such as cost performance indices, schedule performance indices, and earned value analysis, provide indicators of overall project efficiency and can indirectly reflect productivity levels.⁷²

5.3 Data Availability and Trends (Indiana Focus)

Obtaining reliable data on construction productivity trends specifically for Indiana is challenging. The reviewed materials lack direct, state-level time-series data for the construction sector.⁶³ BLS productivity data is generally available at the national level, for broad sectors like manufacturing or services, or for the overall state private nonfarm economy, but not typically for state-level construction.¹³

Consequently, assessing Indiana’s construction productivity trends requires relying on proxy indicators and comparative analyses:

• Comparative State Data: One study, published by the Illinois Economic Policy Institute (now Midwest Economic Policy Institute – MEPI), provided a snapshot comparison of labor productivity (measured as value-added per hour worked) across Midwestern states.⁶⁸ This analysis reported Indiana’s construction productivity at $75.92 per hour, lagging behind Illinois ($87.72) and Wisconsin ($78.67). The study explicitly linked these differences to varying rates of unionization, suggesting lower union density correlated with lower productivity.⁶⁸
• Policy Impact Studies: Research examining the effects of Indiana’s 2015 repeal of its Common Construction Wage (CCW) law provides indirect evidence. Multiple analyses by MEPI and collaborating economists found that following the repeal, construction worker productivity growth in Indiana was significantly slower (by 5.3%) compared to neighboring states that retained prevailing wage laws.³⁰ These studies linked the slower productivity growth to the documented decrease in worker wages and the associated influx of a less-skilled, higher-turnover workforce post-repeal.³⁰ This suggests a potential relative decline or stagnation in Indiana’s construction productivity following the policy change.

The absence of direct, consistent state-level construction productivity tracking necessitates the use of such indirect evidence. While limited, these proxies—comparative state benchmarks and the inferred impacts of the CCW repeal—point towards potential challenges for Indiana’s construction productivity relative to its more highly unionized neighbors. This limitation underscores the need for better state-specific data collection to accurately monitor sector performance.

Furthermore, the available research highlights that productivity is influenced by multiple factors. While the skill level and experience of the workforce are clearly important, as suggested by the CCW repeal studies ³⁰, management practices, project planning, technology adoption, and effective engineering are also crucial, as emphasized by CII’s research on BPPII and engineering productivity measures.⁶⁴ Therefore, efforts to improve productivity must consider both labor force characteristics and project execution strategies.

6. Unionization and Productivity: An Indiana Perspective

The relationship between labor union presence and construction productivity is a subject of ongoing debate and research. Examining this relationship within Indiana offers valuable context, particularly given the state’s policy environment and labor market dynamics.

6.1 Theoretical Links and General Evidence

Theoretically, unions can impact productivity in contradictory ways. Positive effects may arise from union-sponsored apprenticeship programs yielding higher-skilled workers, reduced employee turnover due to better wages and benefits leading to retention of experienced labor, and formalized communication channels potentially improving labor-management cooperation.⁶¹ Conversely, potential negative effects could stem from restrictive work rules limiting managerial flexibility, jurisdictional disputes causing work stoppages, or increased labor costs not fully offset by efficiency gains.

Empirical research, particularly studies using micro-level project data from the 1970s and 1980s, often found a positive productivity differential favoring union construction contractors in the private sector. Seminal studies by Allen, published via NBER, examined commercial office buildings, schools, and hospitals.⁶⁶ For commercial office buildings, union projects demonstrated significantly higher physical productivity (square footage put in place per hour) – estimates ranged from 30% to 51% higher than non-union projects, controlling for various factors.⁶⁶ A similar advantage (23% higher productivity) was found for union contractors in private hospital construction.⁶⁶ However, no significant productivity difference was found in school construction or public hospital projects.⁶⁶ Importantly, these studies also suggested that the higher union productivity often offset higher union wages, resulting in comparable or even lower unit costs, particularly in office building construction.⁶⁶ Factors identified as contributing to higher union productivity included lower ratios of supervision to production workers and the use of different, potentially more labor-economizing, technologies and materials.⁶⁷ A later meta-analysis cited in one source also supported positive union productivity effects in manufacturing and education, and specifically referenced Allen’s findings of a 17-22% union productivity advantage in construction.⁶⁸

6.2 Indiana/Midwest Specific Evidence

Evidence more specific to Indiana and the Midwest aligns with the general findings of a positive correlation between unionization (or policies supporting union standards) and productivity:

• Direct Productivity Comparison: The MEPI analysis comparing Midwestern states found Indiana, with lower construction unionization, exhibited lower labor productivity ($75.92 value-added per hour) compared to highly unionized Illinois ($87.72) and moderately unionized Wisconsin ($78.67).⁶⁸ The study posited a positive linear relationship, suggesting a 10 percentage-point increase in unionization could boost productivity by over $8 per worker per hour in Illinois.⁶⁸
• Impact of Common Construction Wage (CCW) Repeal: The repeal of Indiana’s prevailing wage law in 2015 provides a valuable case study. Prevailing wage laws establish minimum compensation standards on public projects, often mirroring union scales, thereby supporting union standards in that market segment. Multiple studies analyzing the post-repeal period found that Indiana experienced slower construction productivity growth (5.3% slower) compared to neighboring states that maintained prevailing wage laws.³⁰ This relative decline in productivity was linked to the repeal’s impact on the workforce: lower wages attracted a less-skilled labor pool, increased worker turnover, and reduced the share of military veterans in the construction workforce.³⁰ Crucially, these studies found no evidence of cost savings on public projects (specifically schools) resulting from the repeal; the decrease in productivity appeared to offset any savings from lower wages.³⁰ This finding was echoed by at least one state legislator who voted against the repeal, noting the lack of realized savings.³⁰

This body of evidence, particularly the natural experiment provided by the CCW repeal, strongly suggests that weakening mechanisms that support union-level compensation standards in Indiana’s construction market has had a detrimental effect on relative productivity growth.

6.3 Other Performance Factors

Beyond direct productivity metrics, unionization is linked to other aspects of project and workforce performance:

• Costs: As noted, higher union productivity can offset higher wages, leading to comparable or sometimes lower overall project costs, particularly in complex private sector projects like office buildings.⁶⁶ The Indiana CCW repeal studies reinforce this, finding no significant reduction in public school construction costs despite wage cuts, implying that productivity losses negated potential savings.³¹
• Safety: Unionized workplaces are generally associated with better safety outcomes, often attributed to comprehensive safety training programs, joint labor-management safety committees, and empowering workers to report hazards without fear of reprisal.⁶¹ The influx of less-skilled, potentially less-trained workers following Indiana’s CCW repeal was linked to potential safety concerns.³⁰
• Training and Skills: The union sector’s substantial investment in formal apprenticeship training (94% of Indiana’s investment ⁵¹) is a primary mechanism for ensuring a supply of highly skilled craft professionals. This investment is seen as a key contributor to higher productivity and quality work.³⁰
• Workforce Stability: Higher wages and better benefits offered under union contracts contribute to lower employee turnover and greater retention of experienced workers.⁶¹ The CCW repeal in Indiana was associated with increased relative worker turnover in the heavy and highway sector.³¹ Stability and experience are crucial for maintaining consistent productivity and quality.

In summary, the available evidence, both general and specific to Indiana and the Midwest, points towards a positive association between union presence (and supportive policies like prevailing wage) and construction productivity. This advantage appears to stem largely from union investments in workforce skills through rigorous apprenticeship training and the retention of experienced workers fostered by better compensation and benefits, leading to a more stable, skilled, and productive workforce compared to the alternative model, which may rely more on lower-skilled, higher-turnover labor, particularly in the absence of prevailing wage standards.

7. Navigating the Shortage: Impacts on Union and Non-Union Segments

The pervasive labor shortages described in Section 3 impact the entire construction industry, but the effects and adaptive responses may differ between the union and non-union segments of the market in Indiana.

7.1 Wage Impacts

Labor shortages inherently create upward pressure on wages as firms compete for a limited pool of workers.¹⁹ However, the mechanisms for wage adjustment differ.

• Union Sector: Wages are primarily determined through periodic Collective Bargaining Agreements (CBAs). This structure provides wage stability and predictability but may result in slower adjustments to sudden market spikes unless contracts include specific escalator clauses or are reopened for negotiation. Despite this, unions generally maintain a wage premium; nationally, full-time union workers earned significantly more per week ($1,337 median) than their non-union counterparts ($1,138 median) in 2024.⁴⁴ This premium helps attract and retain skilled workers but could be perceived as a cost disadvantage by some employers during periods of intense competition if non-union wages rise rapidly in specific hotspots.
• Non-Union Sector: Wages are typically set by individual employers based on market conditions. This allows for potentially faster and more flexible responses to localized shortages, with firms able to offer targeted increases to attract needed talent. However, overall wage levels may remain lower due to the absence of collective bargaining power. While many contractors (likely a mix of union and non-union) reported raising base pay in response to shortages ¹⁹, the repeal of Indiana’s CCW demonstrated that non-union wages on public projects could be significantly suppressed in the absence of prevailing wage floors.³⁰ The tight labor market generally increases wages for in-demand skills, but the extent of this varies.³⁴

7.2 Project Timelines

Shortages universally contribute to project delays.² However, the ability to mitigate these delays might differ:

• Union Sector: Signatory contractors can leverage union hiring halls to access pools of workers with verified skills and training. This centralized dispatch system can, in theory, provide a more predictable and readily available supply of qualified labor, potentially mitigating delays if the overall labor pool is sufficient. The structured nature of apprenticeships also ensures a pipeline of trained workers, although the time required for training means it cannot solve immediate shortages.
• Non-Union Sector: Firms may face greater challenges in quickly sourcing large numbers of verifiably skilled workers during peak demand. Recruitment might be more fragmented, relying on direct advertising, referrals, or potentially labor brokers. National data suggests non-union GRAPs, while growing in participation, are not keeping pace with demand ¹⁸, and investment in non-union training in Indiana is comparatively low.⁵¹ This could lead to greater reliance on less-experienced labor or workers with unverified skill sets, potentially impacting both project timelines and quality.³⁰

7.3 Recruitment Strategies

Both sectors are adapting their recruitment approaches, but underlying strategies differ:

• Common Strategies: Facing structural shortages, many firms across the board are shifting towards longer-term solutions. This includes increased online recruitment, partnerships with high schools and career-technical education (CTE) programs, investing more in internal training, focusing on youth outreach, and making concerted efforts to attract women and minorities into the trades.² Improving retention through better working conditions and career pathways is also crucial.³⁵
• Union Sector: The cornerstone of union recruitment remains the formal, registered apprenticeship system, typically run through Joint Apprenticeship and Training Committees (JATCs) funded via CBAs.⁵¹ These multi-year programs combine on-the-job training with classroom instruction, providing a structured pathway to journey-level status. Initiatives like the Indiana Plan specifically target diverse candidates for these union apprenticeship programs.⁵⁵ Hiring halls serve as the primary mechanism for connecting journey-level workers with jobs. Subcontracting clauses in CBAs also serve as an indirect recruitment tool by requiring non-signatory subs to meet union standards, potentially incentivizing them to affiliate or hire union labor.⁵⁶
• Non-Union Sector: Recruitment relies more heavily on direct hiring through job postings (e.g., online platforms like ZipRecruiter show both union and non-union openings ⁷³), employee referrals, and potentially recruitment agencies. While non-union registered apprenticeships exist and are growing nationally ¹⁸, their scale and funding in Indiana appear limited compared to the union side.⁵¹ Non-union firms may utilize more task-based or company-specific training rather than broad, transferable apprenticeship credentials. They actively participate in industry-led initiatives like Build Your Future Indiana to engage with potential recruits.²¹

The persistent labor shortages appear to amplify the inherent differences between the two sectors. Unionized firms may benefit from more structured training and hiring systems but face potential rigidities from CBAs. Non-union firms might offer more wage flexibility but grapple with challenges in consistently sourcing skilled labor and funding comprehensive training, potentially leading to greater variability in workforce quality and project outcomes, especially in the absence of prevailing wage standards.³⁰ Recognizing the structural nature of the shortage, both sectors are increasingly investing in pipeline development activities – outreach to schools, youth engagement, diversity initiatives – indicating a shared understanding that simply competing for the existing limited pool of workers is insufficient.²⁰

8. State-Level Influences: Regulations, Economy, and Workforce Initiatives

The dynamics of labor shortages, union activity, and productivity in Indiana’s construction industry are significantly shaped by a unique combination of state-specific regulations, economic conditions, and targeted workforce development efforts.

8.1 Regulations

Two key pieces of legislation stand out for their impact on the labor landscape:

• Right-to-Work (RTW) Law (Enacted 2012): This law prohibits agreements requiring employees to join a union or pay union fees as a condition of employment.⁷⁴ Its effects are contested. Proponents, citing research from the Mackinac Center and Ball State University using border county analysis, argue that RTW has benefited Indiana by increasing the manufacturing and construction employment share relative to non-RTW neighbors.⁷⁶ Conversely, critics, including MEPI and ILEPI, argue that RTW laws primarily serve to weaken union bargaining power and financial resources by enabling “free-riding”.⁷⁴ Their analyses suggest RTW laws are associated with slower wage growth (particularly in construction), reduced benefits, have little correlation with significant manufacturing investment decisions (which are driven by factors like infrastructure, skilled labor availability, and taxes), and lead to lower overall union density.⁷⁴ Indiana’s overall union density did decline notably after RTW implementation.⁴² Regardless of the net economic impact, the law fundamentally alters the operating environment for unions.
• Repeal of Common Construction Wage (CCW) / Prevailing Wage (Effective 2015): This legislation eliminated the requirement for state-determined minimum wage and benefit rates on publicly funded construction projects.³⁰ The stated goal was typically cost savings for taxpayers. However, multiple studies conducted by MEPI and collaborating economists analyzing Indiana’s experience post-repeal found significant negative consequences.³⁰ These studies reported average wage decreases of 8-8.5% for blue-collar construction workers, with even larger cuts (15.1%) for the lowest-paid, thereby increasing wage inequality.³⁰ The repeal was also associated with slower productivity growth (5.3% slower than neighbors), an increased share of workers without a high school diploma, higher relative worker turnover, slower employment growth in public works construction, and a decrease in the share of military veterans employed in the sector.³⁰ Critically, these studies found no statistically significant savings on public project costs (specifically analyzing school construction) and no increase in the number of bids per project, suggesting that productivity declines offset lower wages.³⁰ While alternative perspectives might exist, they were not present in the reviewed materials.

8.2 Economic Factors

Broader economic conditions and state investment strategies heavily influence construction demand and capacity:

• Infrastructure Spending: Indiana has undertaken substantial infrastructure investment. INDOT invested approximately $14.57 billion between 2018 and 2024, resurfacing over half its lane miles and repairing or replacing nearly 79% of its bridges.³⁶ The Community Crossings Matching Grant program has awarded $1.83 billion to local governments for road and bridge projects since 2016.³⁶ Recent awards include $80 million allocated by the Indianapolis Metropolitan Planning Organization (IMPO) for 26 projects in Central Indiana.⁷⁸ This high level of public investment creates significant, sustained demand for construction labor and materials. However, there are concerns about future funding sustainability due to inflation eroding purchasing power (INDOT reportedly lost $1 billion in purchasing power already) and potential declines in fuel tax revenue.³⁶ Proposed legislative caps on programs like Community Crossings could also impact future local project funding.³⁸
• Economic Development: State efforts to attract large-scale manufacturing and technology investments, such as the LEAP Innovation District ³⁸, generate substantial demand for new construction, further straining the labor market.
• Inflation and Interest Rates: Rising inflation increases the cost of construction materials and erodes the value of fixed infrastructure budgets.³⁶ Higher interest rates can dampen private sector construction activity and make project financing more challenging.¹⁷ These macroeconomic factors add layers of uncertainty and cost pressure to the industry.³⁴

8.3 Workforce Development Initiatives

Recognizing the critical labor shortages, Indiana has implemented various workforce development programs involving state agencies, educational institutions, and industry partners:

• State Agencies: The Indiana Department of Workforce Development (DWD) is central to these efforts. It administers programs like the Next Level Jobs Workforce Ready Grant, which provides free tuition for qualifying Hoosiers to earn certificates in high-demand fields, explicitly including construction trades like Building Construction Management, Carpentry, Electrical, HVAC, and Welding.²⁵ DWD also manages the INTraining portal, listing approved occupational training providers eligible for funding (including WIOA funds) ⁷⁹, provides career coaching and job search assistance through WorkOne centers ⁸⁰, and publishes labor market information, including occupational projections via HoosierData.⁸¹ DWD’s projections identify high-demand, higher-wage construction roles like managers, electricians, and plumbers.⁸¹
• Educational Institutions: Ivy Tech Community College is a key partner in delivering Next Level Jobs training ²⁵ and conducts research highlighting the state’s upskilling needs.²² High schools are increasingly offering Career and Technical Education (CTE) pathways, pre-apprenticeships, and work-based learning opportunities in construction.²⁰
• Industry and Union Programs: As previously discussed (Section 4.3), union-run JATCs are major providers of formal apprenticeship training.⁵¹ Industry associations are also active: the Indiana Construction Roundtable Foundation (ICRF), partly funded by DWD and DOE grants, focuses on K-12 outreach and coordinates the Build Your Future Indiana initiative.³ Build Your Future Indiana is a collaborative effort involving ICRF, the Indiana Builders Association (IBA), and the Builders Association of Greater Indianapolis (BAGI) aimed at raising awareness and attracting young people to construction careers.²¹ The Indiana Plan works specifically to increase diversity within union apprenticeship programs.⁵⁵

These state-level factors create a complex environment. Policies like RTW and the CCW repeal may aim to reduce labor costs or increase flexibility but potentially conflict with efforts to attract and retain skilled workers by potentially suppressing wages and weakening established training structures.³⁰ Simultaneously, significant public investment in infrastructure fuels demand, colliding directly with the documented labor supply constraints.³ This collision between high demand, constrained supply, potentially lagging productivity, and a complex policy environment presents a major challenge for the state and the industry. The success of workforce development initiatives in bridging this gap remains a critical question for the future.

Table 8.1: Key Indiana State Policies and Initiatives Influencing Construction Labor and Productivity

9. Synthesis and Future Implications

The preceding analysis reveals a complex interplay between substantial labor shortages, enduring union influence, potential productivity challenges, and a dynamic policy environment within Indiana’s construction industry. Synthesizing these findings highlights critical interdependencies and points towards significant implications for the sector’s future trajectory.

9.1 Recap of Key Findings

Indiana’s construction industry is a significant economic engine, contributing billions to the state’s GSP and employing a large workforce that has seen strong post-pandemic growth.⁴ However, this growth is overshadowed by severe and persistent labor shortages, projected to require over 100,000 additional workers by 2026 to meet demand.³ These shortages stem from an aging workforce, inadequate training pipelines, wage pressures, and negative perceptions of the trades.¹ Despite declining overall union density statewide, particularly after the implementation of RTW legislation ⁴², unions maintain substantial influence within the construction sector through numerous active locals, significant control over formal apprenticeship training investment ⁵¹, and the use of CBA provisions like subcontracting clauses.⁴⁷ Measuring productivity trends specifically for Indiana construction is difficult due to data limitations ⁶³, but comparative analyses and studies on the repeal of the Common Construction Wage suggest potential productivity lags relative to more highly unionized neighbors and negative impacts from policies weakening union standards.³⁰ These shortages impact both union and non-union segments, driving up wages and causing delays, while prompting a shift in recruitment towards long-term pipeline development.² State policies present a mixed picture, with RTW and CCW repeal potentially conflicting with significant investments in workforce development initiatives and infrastructure spending.²⁵

9.2 Analysis of Interplay

The core themes of this report are deeply intertwined:

• Shortages, Unions, and Wages: Labor shortages intensify competition for workers, putting upward pressure on wages in both sectors. Unions aim to maintain standards and premiums through CBAs, potentially providing stability but less immediate flexibility.⁴⁵ Non-union wages may react faster but remain lower overall and are more susceptible to suppression, as seen post-CCW repeal.³⁰ The shortage may slightly increase non-union wages but could also strengthen the union value proposition if they successfully leverage their training infrastructure and maintain higher standards. Union bargaining power itself might be affected; while shortages increase demand for their members, the RTW environment limits their ability to capture non-members benefiting from union-negotiated terms.⁷⁴
• Unions, Shortages, and Productivity: The union sector’s dominance in apprenticeship investment ⁵¹ positions it as a key player in addressing the skilled labor shortage. This structured training pipeline is arguably a primary source of the productivity advantages historically associated with union construction.⁶⁷ However, if the overall number of apprentices entering and completing these programs is insufficient to meet the scale of the shortage ¹⁸, even this robust system may struggle. Conversely, the non-union sector’s reliance on potentially less formal training and a workforce potentially skewed towards lower skills post-CCW repeal ³⁰ could hinder its ability to maintain productivity levels amidst shortages, leading to delays and quality concerns.¹⁹
• Productivity, Demand, and Shortages: Potential productivity challenges, whether due to skill gaps, management practices, or policy impacts ³⁰, exacerbate the problems caused by labor shortages. Lower productivity means more labor hours are needed to complete projects, further straining the limited workforce supply, especially when facing massive demand from infrastructure investments.³⁶ This creates a vicious cycle where shortages and productivity issues feed off each other, threatening the industry’s capacity to deliver projects efficiently.
• State Policy Mediation: State policies act as crucial mediators. RTW and CCW repeal appear to have weakened union influence and wage standards, potentially impacting workforce composition and productivity negatively.³⁰ Simultaneously, state funding for workforce development (Next Level Jobs, DWD initiatives) aims to alleviate shortages.²⁵ This creates a tension: policies potentially depressing wages and weakening training institutions coexist with initiatives trying to attract workers into those same trades. The massive infrastructure spending further complicates this by boosting demand without necessarily resolving the supply-side constraints or policy conflicts.³⁶

9.3 Future Implications for Indiana’s Construction Industry

The interplay of these factors points to several critical implications for the future:

• Sustainability of Growth and Infrastructure Goals: The collision between unprecedented infrastructure investment ³⁶ and severe labor constraints ³, coupled with potential productivity issues ³⁰, poses a significant risk to Indiana’s ability to execute its infrastructure plans efficiently. Widespread project delays, cost overruns, and an inability to fully leverage infrastructure investments seem likely unless supply-side issues are effectively addressed.²
• Workforce Transformation: Addressing the shortage requires a long-term transformation of the workforce pipeline. Current strategies focusing on youth outreach, CTE, and diversity recruitment are essential.¹² However, their sufficiency remains uncertain given the scale of the need and the continued impact of the aging workforce.¹ The effectiveness of different training models (union JATCs vs. non-union programs vs. state initiatives like Next Level Jobs) in producing job-ready, skilled workers at scale will be critical. Overcoming negative perceptions of the trades remains a key challenge.²⁴
• Labor Relations Dynamics: The future landscape of labor relations is uncertain. Will persistent shortages increase worker leverage, potentially leading to renewed organizing efforts or stronger demands within existing unions? Or will the RTW environment continue to limit union growth despite favorable market conditions for labor? The ongoing debate around policies like prevailing wage suggests continued tension between different visions for the industry’s labor standards.
• Role of Technology: While not extensively covered in the source materials, the potential for technology adoption (automation, advanced tools, software) to boost productivity and potentially mitigate some labor needs is an important factor to consider for the future.²⁷

9.4 Areas for Further Research

Based on the analysis and identified data gaps, several areas warrant further investigation:

1. State-Level Productivity Data: Development of reliable metrics and consistent tracking of construction productivity trends specifically within Indiana is crucial for accurate assessment and informed policymaking.
2. Union Density in Indiana Construction: Quantifying the actual union membership and representation rates within Indiana’s construction sector, potentially by trade, would fill a significant data gap and allow for more precise analysis of union influence.
3. Effectiveness of Workforce Initiatives: Rigorous evaluation of the long-term outcomes of various workforce development programs (Next Level Jobs, Build Your Future Indiana, union apprenticeships, non-union GRAPs) is needed to determine which approaches are most effective at attracting, training, and retaining skilled workers in specific trades.
4. Comprehensive CCW Repeal Impact: Further research could explore the full economic impact of the CCW repeal, examining effects on project quality, long-term maintenance costs, worker safety, and broader economic multipliers, in addition to the documented impacts on wages, productivity, and workforce composition.
5. CBA Impact Analysis: Detailed analysis of how specific provisions within Indiana construction CBAs (e.g., work rules, mobility clauses, safety protocols) influence firm-level performance, project outcomes, and labor market dynamics in the context of shortages and the RTW environment.

9.5 Concluding Statement

Indiana’s construction industry stands at a critical juncture, fueled by significant investment but constrained by deep-seated labor shortages and navigating a complex policy landscape. The interplay between workforce availability, union institutions, productivity levels, and state regulations is intricate and carries profound implications for the state’s economic future and infrastructure development. Addressing these challenges effectively will require a cohesive and sustained strategy that integrates efforts across industry stakeholders, labor organizations, government agencies, and educational institutions to build a skilled, stable, and productive workforce for the 21st century.

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• ¹⁰⁴ Garcia, E., & Weiss, E. (n.d.). The impact of changes in public-sector bargaining laws on districts’ spending on teacher compensation. Economic Policy Institute (EPI).
• ¹⁰⁵ U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). (n.d.). Employment Projections News Release. [Accessed April 2025].
• ⁸¹ Indiana Department of Workforce Development (DWD). (n.d.). HoosierData – Indiana Employment Outlook Projections. [Accessed April 2025].
• ¹⁰⁶ Maggos, A. (2019, July/August). The role of the Occupational Employment Statistics survey in shaping workforce data. InContext (Indiana Business Research Center).
• ⁸² Indiana Department of Workforce Development (DWD). (n.d.). HoosierData – Long Term Occupational Projections Tool. [Accessed April 2025].
• ¹⁰⁷ U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). (n.d.). Employment Projections – Occupational projections and characteristics. [Data table accessed April 2025].
• ¹⁰⁸ Wisconsin Department of Workforce Development. (n.d.). Understanding Wisconsin’s Job Outlook 2018-2028..
• ¹⁰⁹ Ohio Department of Job and Family Services. (n.d.). Ohio Labor Market Information. [Homepage, accessed April 2025].
• ¹¹⁰ Minnesota Department of Employment and Economic Development (DEED). (n.d.). Employment Outlook Projections. [Accessed April 2025].
• ¹¹¹ Indiana Institute for Working Families. (2013). Indiana’s Middle-Skill Jobs..
• ¹¹² Center of Workforce Innovations. (n.d.). Northwest Indiana Hiring Needs 2013-2018..
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